Tsim, Science
Kev kawm ntawv thiab kev kawm nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia
Xyoo pua puv 19 rau Russia yog tus xa taw tes, thaum nyob rau hauv thaum pib ntawm lub xyoo pua hwj chim dhau rau Alexander kuv tom qab lub regicide Paul kuv, thaum science thiab kev kawm ntawv pib los tsim sai heev, uas yuav tsum tau ib tug loj kev hloov. Tag nrho cov kev hloov ntawm lub xyoo pua puv 19 yuav tsum tau muab faib mus rau hauv thawj thiab thib ob halves.
Russia nyob rau hauv lub chaw pib ntawm lub xyoo pua puv 19
Lub legacy hluas huab tais tau txais lub xeev, uas tau undergone tseem ceeb cov kev hloov raws li muab piv rau yav dhau los sij hawm. Nws yog ua tau rau koj nco ntsoov ib tug ob peb tseem ceeb tshaj uas qhia tau tias lub teb chaws lub grandeur:
- Nce cheeb tsam vim tus annexation ntawm Crimea, Kazakhstan, lub Baltic States, cov Right-Bank Ukraine thiab Western Belarus. Raws li ib tug tsim nyog tau, thiab cov pejxeem tau ua ntau txog 40 lab. Cov neeg, uas 90% yog peasants. Tsis tas li ntawd muaj zog, thiab lub nroog pejxeem, tshwj xeeb tshaj yog nyob rau hauv St. Petersburg thiab Moscow, uas, ntawm chav kawm, pab cov kev loj hlob ntawm science nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia.
- Romanov los ua qhov loj tshaj plaws tswv thiab muaj ib co kev ywj pheej los ntawm lwm yam lub teb chaws Estates.
- Cov nyiaj nce ntau tshaj peb lub ntsiab piv rau lub 18th caug xyoo.
Cov kev loj hlob ntawm science nyob rau hauv thawj ib nrab ntawm cov xyoo pua puv 19
Tham txog txoj kev loj hlob ntawm science nyob rau hauv thawj ib nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua yuav tau nyob rau hauv cov kev tshwm sim paub los zaum ntawm lub sij hawm, vim uas niaj hnub no nws tseem tau mus pom xws koj achievements.
Science nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia - yog, saum toj no tag nrho, kawm txog zauv, physics thiab Science News for KIDS.
Nyob rau hauv Kazan University lej xibfwb Nikolai Lobachevsky muaj peev xwm los tsim ib tug tshiab kev tshawb xav nyob rau hauv geometry, hu ua "non-Euclidean". Tus kws kho mob Nikolai Pirogov muaj peev xwm mus rau kauj ruam deb nyob rau hauv cov tshuaj rau ib ntev lub sij hawm thaum xav tias yuav phais. Nws muaj peev xwm mus thov nws nyob rau hauv tsov rog, ua ntej siv ether tshuaj loog thiab ib tug plaster cam khwb cia.
Nyob rau hauv physics, lub ntsiab kom pom tseeb ntawm txoj kev tshawb ntawm lub sij hawm no yog cov hluav taws xob, thiab qhov no yog qhov twg lub foundations twb tau. Boris Jacobi qhib lub electroforming txoj kev, thiab ces tsim ob peb electric motors thiab telegraphs. Ib tug physicist Vasily Petrov twb tau mus qhia yuav ua li cas koj yuav siv hluav taws xob rau teeb pom kev zoo thiab hlau trunks, tshawb xyuas cov arc thiab xwb nyob rau hauv ib tug rarefied roj.
Nws tsim thaum lub sij hawm lub sij hawm no thiab ib tug science, astronomy, yog li ntawd, twb qhib nyob rau hauv 1839, Pulkovo Observatory, qhov uas nws ua astronomer Vasily Struve, uas pheej nrhiav tau lub concentration ntawm cov hnub qub nyob rau hauv lub kab lig ntuj txoj kev dav hlau.
Tsev kawm ntawv thiab universities
Thaum pib ntawm qhov kev kawm thiab kev kawm ntawv ntawm lub xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia tau hloov, thiab nyob rau hauv 1803 muab ib tug decree mus rau faib lub teb chaws mus rau hauv rau kev kawm ntawv, txhua tus uas yuav tsum tau tsim kom muaj lub tsev kawm ntawv. Txawm li cas los, nws raug sab tshaj 20 xyoo tsuas yog peb kawm ntawv qib siab hauv tsev, xws li Moscow, Kazan thiab St. Petersburg University. Nicholas kuv ho tsis txhawb lub tswv yim ntawm kev kawm ntawv, thiab tsis muaj lub tsev kawm ntawv yog tsis qhib nyob rau hauv nws txoj cai. Nyob rau hauv tas li ntawd, nws ntseeg hais tias cov me nyuam yuav tsum tsis txhob qhia serfs Attendance nrog tag nrho.
Ib tug zoo kev kawm ntawv yuav tsum tau, tab sis tsuas yog tus nom tswv cajceg nyob rau hauv lub ntsej muag, xws li Tsarskoye selo nyob ze St. Petersburg, thiab Demidov, uas yog nyob rau hauv Yaroslavl.
Zoo tej yam uas twb nrog lub tsev kawm ntawv ntawm cov kev profile. Thaum pib ntawm lub xyoo pua, nws raug sab xwb Roob lub koom haum, ib tug me ntsis rau yav tom ntej nyob rau hauv lub hav zoov lub koom haum. Nicholas kuv zoo rau engineering thiab cov tub rog kev kawm ntawv, li ntawd, yog hais tias nws twb qhib hauj tsev nyob rau hauv St. Petersburg thiab Moscow, raws li zoo raws li lub Artillery thiab Engineering Academy.
Kev kawm ntawv rau cov poj niam
Ib tug zoo nyiam mus xav txog qhov txuas ntxiv ntawm cov poj niam txoj kev kawm ntawv, uas raug tso nyob rau tom Ekaterina II, mus faus zoo, thiab zoo poj niam thiab leej niam. Yog li ntawd, tsev tau qhib nyob rau hauv ntau lub zos rau cov ntxhais ntawm noble keeb kwm: Nizhny Novgorod, Astrakhan, Saratov, Irkutsk, ntawm chav kawm, Moscow thiab St. Petersburg.
humanities
Humanities xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia, nyob rau hauv thawj ib nrab, muaj ib tug siab pej xeem txaus siab pib tsim nyob rau hauv keeb kwm, thiab yog tsim los pab los ntawm cov Moscow Society of History thiab Antiquities. Tsis tas li ntawd ntawm kev txaus siab twb qhia rau zaj keeb kwm thiab lug, xws li Slavonic, Suav tshawb fawb, uas yog lub community launch txog lub zus tau tej cov phau ntawv thiab periodicals.
Publishing tau ua heev nrov, thiab nyob rau hauv 1809 sau 68 phau ntawv Magazine ntawm ntau yam kev kawm thiab 9 ntawv xov xwm. muaj neeg txhais lus ua hauj lwm, thiab cov pej xeem los ua ntsib nrog txawv teb chaws cov ntaub ntawv raws li ib tug tshwm sim ntawm lub foundations thiab kev loj hlob ntawm printing.
Peb kuj yuav tsum hais txog cov neeg Lavxias teb sab ntaub ntawv, thaum lub teb chaws kawm txog Pushkin, Nekrasov thiab Turgenev. Thaum lub sij hawm no lub sij hawm, tsa tej teeb meem xws li lub plight ntawm tus me txiv neej los ntawm lub qis chav kawm ntawv, tab sis nyob rau tib lub sij hawm, hu pej xeem sawv nyob rau hauv hais lus thiab sau daim ntawv no.
Science, kev kawm ntawv (xyoo pua puv 19, lub thib ob ib nrab, Russia)
Qhov thib ob ib nrab, thaum feudalism muab txoj kev uas yuav capitalism, yuav tsum tau ib tug ntau dua theem ntawm txoj kev loj hlob, tsis tsuas yog cov educated neeg, tab sis kuj nrog zoo tib yam neeg ua hauj lwm, thiab kev kawm ntawv nyob rau hauv thawj qhov chaw yog kov cov sectors uas yog txuam nrog rau ib lub neej zoo.
Txawm li cas los, txoj kev loj hlob tau muaj nyob rau hauv yooj yim tej yam kev mob, thaum lub qhov chaw yog fwm txawm feudalism, raug tsim txom los ntawm cov autocracy, thiab Lavxias teb sab kws tshawb fawb, sau ntawv thiab ntxias tau mus ua hauj lwm nyuaj heev.
Nws yog ib nqi sau cia hais tias lub revolutionary zog tau pab mus rau nam lub science nyob deb ua ntej thaum Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Herzen thiab struggled, nws yog lub sij hawm mus rau dawb los ntawm cov neeg serfdom. Tag nrho cov no tau spurred zaum ua tau zoo kawg discoveries rau cov kev pab ntawm cov neeg.
nto moo zaum
Qhov thib ob ib nrab ntawm cov 19th caug xyoo yog yus los ntawm tus taw tes ntawm view ntawm science raws li txoj kev loj hlob ntawm lub natural sciences, xws li physics, lej, Science News for KIDS, kev kawm txog tsiaj txhu thiab liaj ia. Tej kev thov yog txiav txim los ntawm cov kev xav tau ntawm lub neej, Modernization ntawm ntau lawm thiab lub siab xav mus qhuas tus zaum lub xeev achievements thiab discoveries hais tias nws yog qhov no yog zaj dab neeg ntawm Lavxias teb sab science. Xyoo pua puv 19, ua ntej ntawm tag nrho cov, "hais lub" zaum xws li Pafnutii Chebyshev, uas tau sim mus txuas rau cov teeb meem ntawm kev kawm txog zauv thiab lub ntuj sciences ua lub foundations ntawm cov kev tshawb xav ntawm cov cav tov thiab mechanisms.
Ib tug tseem ceeb sawv cev ntawm lub ntiaj teb no ntawm tus paub txog ib tug poj niam, Sofia Kovalevskaya, uas yuav tsis tau txais ib tug zoo kev kawm ntawv nyob rau hauv Russia thiab mus txawv teb chaws, qhov chaw uas nws tau txais ib tug doctorate nyob rau hauv kev kawm lej. Txawm li cas los, nws sawv cev ntawm Guj kuj, thiab nws tej hauj lwm tau raug lees paub tias nyob ib ncig ntawm lub ntiaj teb no.
Science nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia tau tiav ci ntsa iab vam meej nyob rau hauv physics, ua tsaug rau zaum zoo li Alexander Stoletov, uas kawm magnetism thiab photoelectric phenomena, raws li zoo raws li tau txais kev pab raws li ib tug kws qhia ntawv rau ntau tshaj peb caug xyoo, lub taub hau ntawm lub Department of Moscow State University.
Peb kuj yuav tsum hais Lavxias teb sab chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, tus paub txog uas pheej nrhiav tau lub periodic txoj cai ntawm cov tshuaj hais.
Kho nyob rau hauv kev kawm ntawv
Ib zaug nyob rau hauv lub teb chaws, muaj ntau ntau cov nroj tsuag thiab factories, uas yuav tsum tau muaj peev xwm cov neeg uas muaj peev xwm nyeem tau, sau ntawv, to taub cov cav tov yuav tsum tau hloov nyob rau hauv kev kawm ntawv.
ib tug xov tooj ntawm kho tau nqa tawm, uas pab rau tsim nyob rau hauv lub tsev teev ntuj tsev kawm ntawv, ob xyoos thiab plaub-xyoo thawj lub tsev kawm ntawv. Zemsky kuj qhib lub tsev kawm ntawv, nyob qhov twg muaj ib tug ntau kim heev kev pab cuam ntawm txoj kev tshawb no, thiab Sunday lub tsev kawm ntawv rau cov neeg laus uas tau kawm cov ntawv tom qab ua hauj lwm.
Cov science ntawm lub thib ob ib nrab ntawm cov 19th caug xyoo nyob rau hauv Russia hu ua rau expansion ntawm lub network ntawm cov kev kawm nyob rau hauv theem nrab thiab tertiary tsev. Nyob rau hauv lub zos (Tomsk, Odessa, Riga, Kharkov, Kiev) universities tau qhib, kev hauv tsev, thiab ob peb ua liaj ua teb academies.
Tab sis lub tsarist tsoom fwv impeded kev kawm ntawv, thiab heev me ntsis yog qhib, txawm nyob rau hauv lub tsev kawm ntawv, li ntawd, Zog ntawm Guj kuj yog ib tug ntawm lub xeem qhov chaw nyob rau kev kawm ntawv. Los ntawm kawg ntawm lub xyoo pua paub ntaub ntawv tus nqi ntawm tsuas yog 28%, thaum cov poj niam nws yog tsuas yog 17%.
Tsev kawm ntawv rau cov poj niam
Raws li hais saum toj no, tsuas yog cov neeg sawv cev ntawm cov nom tswv cajceg nyob rau hauv thawj ib nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua tau txais tsawg kawg yog ib co kev kawm ntawv, qhov chaw uas lawv tau qhia cov lus, zoo cwj pwm zoo thiab saib xyuas vaj tse. Science nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia rau cov poj niam yog ib yam dab tsi tsis muaj thiab to taub tsis tau, tshwj xeeb tshaj yog rau lawv yog - mus kawm nyeem ntawv, sau ntawv, thiab beautifully qhia.
Thawj thiab theem nrab tsev kawm ntawv dog dig poj niam suab tsis muaj kom txog thaum lub 60-ies. Cov tsev kawm ntawv pib tshwm nyob rau hauv lub 70s, tab sis heev maj mam, thiab kev nkag los rau universities kiag kaw rau cov poj niam ntawm cov tub kawm.
Vim cov kev sib raug zog, nws twb qhib ob peb cov poj niam lub siab lub tsev kawm ntawv, kev kho mob cov kev kawm, tab sis ua ntej lub kiv puag ncig ntawm lub xyoo pua 20th poj niam twb tsis nyob rau hauv vaj huam sib luag txoj hauj lwm.
Cov kev loj hlob ntawm lub humanities nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua puv 19 Russia
Ib tug peculiar feature ntawm lub teb chaws yog hais tias nyob rau hauv lub keeb kwm yav dhau ntawm illiteracy feem ntau ntawm cov pejxeem tau ib tug muaj nqi ntawm kev loj hlob ntawm science, qhov twg muaj koj qhib rau lub ntiaj teb no nyob rau hauv feem ntau.
Qhov loj tshaj plaws uas tau muaj tshwm nyob rau hauv lub humanities, raws li yog lub creation ntawm collections ntawm tej hauj lwm hauv lub keeb kwm ntawm Russia los ntawm ancient sij hawm mus rau lub sij hawm tam sim (lub thib ob ib nrab ntawm cov 19th century), uas yog tsim los pab los ntawm Academician Sergeem Solovevym, nyob rau hauv 29 tagnrho. Qhov no sau , thiab hnub no yog lub feem ntau kev rau hauv keeb kwm ntawm lub teb chaws.
Thaum lub sij hawm no lub sij hawm, muaj twb paub rau tag nrho cov phau ntawv txhais lus Vladimira Dalya, uas tau tsa ntau tshaj 200,000 lo lus. Nyob rau hauv tas li ntawd rau cov lus nyob rau hauv phau ntawv no muaj paj lug thiab sayings, raws li zoo raws li cov kev terminology.
Kawm Lavxias teb sab ntaub ntawv koom txawj sau ntawv IB Afanasiev tau koob meej thiab ua hauj lwm ntawm Lavxias teb sab philosopher, uas kuj kawm lub ancient Lavxias teb sab ntaub ntawv thiab lus dab neeg, lub academician Buslaeva.
Humanities nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia tuaj nyob rau hauv tus ntawm lub complex ntawm socialist dab, thaum muaj ib nom tswv tsis khov, brewing ib tug kev hloov ntawm tsoom fwv, thiab cov neeg saib rau txoj kev loj hlob ntxiv ntawm lub teb chaws, uas yog reflected nyob rau hauv cov ntawv nyeem, uas yog muab faib ua peb qhov chaw: ib qho tseem ceeb realism, proletarian ntaub ntawv thiab modernism .
Tau ntawm lub xyoo pua puv 19
Rau Russia, lub xyoo pua puv 19 yog ib tug sij hawm uas tseem, heev ntau haiv neeg, ua kev thiab contradictory nyob rau hauv tag nrho cov spheres ntawm lub neej, los ntawm lub neej ntawm lub peasants, uas ua dawb xwb mus rau thaum xaus ntawm lub xyoo pua, thiab xaus nrog lub reign ntawm plaub vajntxwv, txhua tus nyob rau ib yam dab tsi ua tau zoo, tab sis nyob rau hauv ib yam dab tsi nws yog ib tug ua tiav tsis ua hauj lwm. Txawm li cas los, cov kev kawm ntawm hauv thawj ib nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua puv 19 nyob rau hauv Russia, raws li zoo raws li lub thib ob, yus muaj los ntawm lub siab xav ntawm zaum mus cuag unprecedented heights, txawm tag nrho cov teeb meem uas hampered txoj kev loj hlob. Thoob plaws hauv lub xyoo pua mus ua discoveries uas ua rau hnub no nyob rau hauv tag nrho cov cheeb tsam ntawm kev technology yog nyob rau theem siab tshaj plaws.
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