Qhov chaw ntawm chaw nyob. Daim ntawv teev cov geography ntaub ntawv. Maps, atlases

Los ntawm ancient sij hawm, tus txiv neej yog xav nyob rau hauv dab tsi yog nyob rau lub qab ntug - ib tug tshiab lub teb chaws los yog xaus ntawm lub ntiaj teb. Centuries dhau, civilization tau sau kev paub. Lub sij hawm tau tuaj hais tias lub sij hawm thaum zaum, uas yeej tsis tau rau hauv nyob deb pawg neeg thaj av, paub ib tug ntau yam txog lawv. Nyob rau hauv no lawv pab los ntawm cov kev pab ntawm chaw nyob.

Qhov tsab xov xwm no yuav qhia tau rau koj tias nws yog, raws li zoo raws li lawv ntau ntau yam.

General tswv yim

Raws li tej zaum koj yuav twv, yog li ntawd kuv hu ua rau tag nrho cov qhov chaw ntawm cov ntaub ntawv los ntawm qhov uas ib tug neeg muaj peev xwm txais cov ntaub ntawv ntawm kev txaus siab rau nws. Uas tshuaj xyuas qhov chaw ntawm chaw nyob Qib 5 (nyob rau hauv theem nrab tsev kawm ntawv)? Wb sau lawv:

• Tag nrho cov maps, atlases, thiab ib tug ntau yam ntawm topographical kev npaj, nrog rau cov tub rog.
• Ntau haiv neeg geographic hauj lwm ntawm cov kev chaw.
• Txoj kev, encyclopedic cov khoom, thiab ntaub ntawv kev soj ntsuam ntawm ntau yam expeditions.
• Huab cua cov duab thiab cov satellite imagery chaw.
• GIS thiab GPS / GLONASS.

Ntawm no yog ib txhia qhov chaw ntawm chaw nyob paub Qib 5 nyob rau hauv ib tug nruab nrab kev kawm ntawv. Peb kuj sim mus xav txog cov yam ntxwv ntawm ib co ntawm lawv ib tug me ntsis ntau yam.

niaj hnub siv tshuab

Nyob rau hauv xyoo tsis ntev los, ntau thiab ntau yam kev pab yog kis los ntawm daim ntawv rau cov ntawv no. Qhov no yog tsis xav tsis thoob. Yuav luag tag nrho cov 5 chaw nyob qhov chaw, uas peb nyuam qhuav hais, niaj hnub no peb yuav nrhiav tau nws nyob rau hauv cov ntawv no. Txawm kev zaum nyob rau hauv xyoo tsis ntev los, xav mus ua hauj lwm nrog ib tug "xov tooj".

Nrog tib GIS system ua hauj lwm ntau npaum li cas yooj yim tshaj nrog ib pawg ntawm phau ntawv. Thiab tam sim no sib tham txog ib txhia qhov chaw ntawm chaw nyob rau hauv kom meej.

card

Card hu ua ib tug generalized schematic daim duab ntawm tus nto ntawm lub teb chaws, tag nrho cov ntiaj chaw los yog xilethi-aus lub cev. Nws yog ua tau rau cov hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm scaling, piv txwv li cov zauv txoj kev siv rau lub hom phiaj no. Uas yog, nyob ntawm seb lub scale ntawm tag nrho cov ntawv yuav subdivided rau hauv peb loj pawg:

• Loj-scale.
• Mesoscale.
• Me-scale.

Yog hais tias peb tham txog cov thawj qeb, ces tus piv ntawm cov ntaub ntawv no yuav ua tau 1: 200 000 thiab loj. Qhov no muaj xws li yuav luag tag nrho cov topographical kev pab them nqi. Me scale yog tag nrho cov ntawv, qhov ratio yog tsawg tshaj li 1: 1 000 000 tib yam atlas muaj los yog me me-scale los yog medium-qhov loj qhov kev pab them nqi uas yog zoo tshaj plaws haum rau txoj kev tshawb no ntawm ib tug tas.

Tsi cartographic ntaub ntawv

Koj yuav tsum paub hais tias ntev ua ntej cov creation tshwj xeeb tsim maps kev kawm xaiv txoj kev uas yuav tsum tau qhia rau nws. Qhov no yog hu ua raws li nram no: cartographic generalization. Lawm, lub feem ntau yooj yim xaiv tshwm sim nyob rau hauv kev sib hwm ntawm me me-scale maps, raws li lawv yuav tsum kom haum raws li lub siab tshaj plaws nqi ntawm pab ntaub ntawv ntawm ib tug tsawg kawg nkaus hneev taw ntawm daim ntawv. Nyob rau hauv lub feem ntau generalization tseem ceeb heev luag hauj lwm ua si los ntawm ncaj qha lub sij hawm daim ntawv raws li zoo raws li lub xav li cas ntawm cov neeg muas zaub.

qhov chaw pab them nqi

Yog li ntawd hu ua struts drawings, uas yog ua rau ib tug loj scale (1: 5000 los yog ntau tshaj), thiab yog twv siv tshwj xeeb cim. Nyob rau hauv no lawv zoo li lub tsev kawm ntawv atlas. Kev siv ntawm tej kev pab them nqi yog raws li nyob rau hauv lub nrig txog kev pom, instrumental ntsuas, aerial photography los yog lub neej coj txoj kev.

Txij li thaum nyob rau hauv cov kev npaj sau tseg qhia tus me qhov chaw ntawm lub ntiaj teb nto, thaum tsim lub ntiaj chaw curvature yuav tsis saib tsis xyuas. Nws yuav tsum tau kom meej meej to taub hais tias cov chaw no ntawm chaw nyob, uas peb nyuam qhuav piav, yog radically txawv los ntawm txhua lwm yam.

Lub ntsiab sib txawv ntawm daim card npaj

• Lub centimeter npaj tsuj tsawg nteg ntau tshaj tsib kilometers mus rau lub sij struts. Lawv yog cov ntau ntau phaib nyob rau hauv ib tug millimeter uas yuav pw pua pua ntawm kilometers ntawm lub ntiaj teb saum npoo av.
• Tag nrho cov khoom nyob rau hauv av lub hom phiaj yog qhia raws li ntxaws li sai tau. Nyob rau hauv hauv paus ntsiab lus, tag nrho cov ntau dua los yog tsawg ib qho tseem ceeb qhov chaw cim nyob rau hauv ib tug nruab nrab daim duab. Yog li, topographical kev npaj rau cov General neeg ua hauj lwm (thiab cov Soviet Union, ntawm chav kawm) yuav muab tso tawm kom txawm ntoo thiab me me ntws. Nyob rau hauv daim ntawv qhia nws yog tsis yooj yim sua kom tau tag nrho cov ntaub ntawv. Ua tau, yog li ntawd, nqa tawm generalization, uas peb tau sib tham txog saum toj no. Txawm lub caij nyoog ntaem ntawm cov continents nyob rau ntau maps tsis tau pom, tab sis vim hais tias lawv yog feem ntau ntaub ntawv nrog loj distortion. Nyob rau hauv tas li ntawd, cov saum toj no ntxiv ntaub ntawv rau lub geography ntawm kev siv scaleless cim.
• Peb feem ntau ib zaug dua hais tias cov kev tsim kho txoj kev npaj rau kev tsis saib xyuas lub curvature ntawm lub ntiaj teb saum npoo av. Phaib, tshwj xeeb tshaj yog nyob rau hauv ib tug me me scale, xav txog nws yuav tsum tau.
• Nyob rau hauv kev npaj tsis degree daim phiaj. Nyob rau tib lub sij hawm, lub parallels thiab meridians yog rau txhua tus.
• Lub hom phiaj yog ib txwm yooj yim nyob rau hauv cov nqe lus ntawm orientation. Sab saum toj ntawm daim ntawv - sab qaum teb, hauv qab, ntsig txog, - rau sab qab teb. Nyob rau hauv maps ntawm lub cheeb tsam txhais los ntawm thaum uas tig mus.

Duab txoj kev khoom nyob rau hauv cov kev npaj thiab maps

Conditional cim nyob rau hauv cov ntaub ntawv no yog cov pa embodiments nyob rau hauv uas lub cim feature muaj nyob rau ntawm ib daim ntawv qhia los yog txoj kev npaj tej khoom. Nrog lawv pab, koj yuav tau tso saib ib yam dab tsi qhob (ib lub roob, piv txwv li), thiab ib yam dab tsi heev paub daws teeb, zwj ceeb (cov kev ceev ntawm pej xeem nyob hauv lub nroog, lub zos, thiab hais txog. N.). Ntawm cov hoob kawm, lawv muaj tag nrho cov zoo heev pab txhawb lub neej ntawm ib tug txiv neej uas paub cov qauv rau kev cartography thiab yog muaj peev xwm nyeem cov drawings.

Yuav ua li cas ntev hauv daim ntawv qhia tseem tseem ceeb?

Lo lus nug no yog tsawg kawg yog einozhdy teem yuav luag tag nrho cov geographers thiab geologists. Ib tug teb nyob rau hauv lub hom phiaj, uas, tus neeg sau ntawm lub hom phiaj. Yog li, lub medieval scholars feem ntau kos ib daim ntawv qhia cia "rau lub hauv caug", li ntawd, yuav hais txog lawv cov neeg yog tsis tsim nyog. Tab sis lub General neeg ua hauj lwm maps, txawm lub sij hawm, tseem amaze nrog lawv precision.

Tsis txhob hnov qab tias daim ntawv qhia ntawm lub Far North yog tubntxhais siab stability, thaum lub Amazon thiab lub Nile kev pab them nqi yuav tsum xyuam xim pov tseg ntawm tsib caug xyoo tom qab lawv cov ntawv qhia. cov dej li nraaj thiab sai heev hloov cov topography ntawm lub ntiaj teb nto, los ntawm cov laus cov ntaub ntawv paub tsuas yog los ntawm ib tug keeb kwm kev xav.

Thaj piav qhia, qhib

Tag nrho cov qhov chaw ntawm chaw nyob sib tham saum toj no, ib co boring, uninteresting. Qhov twg lom zem mus saib qhov kev piav qhia ntawm ib thaj av, thaj tsam los yog txawm sab av loj, sau los ntawm tus txiv neej uas sab nws tag nrho cov!

Tso dag cia tseg, tab sis cov lus piav qhia thiab ntaub ntawv nyob rau hauv geographic (geodetic, lom) kev tshawb fawb tau tej zaum kuj muab ib tug ncauj lus ntau ntxiv tshaj rau feem ntau cov ncauj lus kom ntxaws topographic daim ntawv qhia hauv cheeb tsam. Tshwj xeeb tshaj yog nyob rau hauv lub caij nyoog kawg no tsis tso saib ib co ntawm cov tsis kaj siab nta ntawm ib tug tas (malaria, yog pom nyob rau hauv ib co central chaw ntawm teb chaws Africa, nyob rau txhua txhua kauj ruam, piv txwv li).

Lub daim ntawv teev cov ntaub ntawv rau geography, uas yog muab rau cov tub ntxhais kawm nyob rau lub tsev kawm ntawv (xws li Nikolina VV geography, txoj hauj lwm kev loj hlob; Samkova VA Peb kawm hauv lub hav zoov, hav zoov Encyclopedia: 2 t / ch ed G. I. Vorobov ... ), raws li lub sij hawm thiab tsim ua tsaug rau cov ua hauj lwm ntawm kev soj ntsuam nyob rau lub sij hawm mus ntaus nyob rau hauv tag nrho cov ntaub ntawv rau ntawm daim card ua nyob rau hauv lub tuab ntawm tej yam.

Nyuag ntaub ntawv hais txog cov lus qhib ntawm teb chaws Africa

Qhia rau peb ib tug me ntsis txog keeb kwm ntawm cov lus qhib ntawm lub Tsaus sab av loj. Ntawm cov hoob kawm, lo lus "foundations" yog tsis heev muaj tseeb: hais tias yog Australia - yog, nws yuav tsum tau raug kev txom nyem. Nyob rau hauv cov ntaub ntawv ntawm teb chaws Africa peb tau tau zoo kawm nqaum chaw, nyob qhov twg dub qhev raug ntes thiab yuav los ntawm As traders ivory, tab sis ntawm dab tsi yog yuav mus nyob rau hauv sab hauv ntawm lub teb chaws, tsis paub yuav luag tsis muaj leej twg.

Txhua yam hloov nyob rau hauv lub XIX xyoo pua, thaum lub legendary tuaj txog nyob rau hauv teb chaws Africa, David Livingstone. Yuav kom nws yog tus yawm ntawm qhib lub qhov ntawm lub Nile thiab lub zoo kawg li lub pas dej Victoria. Ob peb cov neeg paub, tab sis Central teb chaws Africa cov kev tshawb fawb thaum lub sij hawm twb koom nyob rau hauv Lavxias teb sab neeg kawm xaij VV Junker (nyob rau hauv 1876-1886 xyoo).

Rau lub hauv paus txawm cov pej xeem ntawm lub teb chaws nws twb tu siab, lub ntsiab qhov chaw ntawm chaw nyob (ie maps), cov ntaub ntawv rau cov uas tawv ua luaj li thiab qhov txaus ntshai rau lub neej sau tag nrho cov siab tawv zaum tau tau nquag siv los ntawm tus qhev traders ...

Yog li ntawd, nrog maps thiab cov kev npaj, peb yeej ua tiav lawm. Thaj atlases yuav mus rau tib qeb. Thiab yog dab tsi yog lub luag hauj lwm ntawm cov niaj hnub qhov chaw ntawm chaw nyob? Yuav kom teb tau lo lus nug no, xav txog lub hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm sib koom cov laus daim ntawv maps thiab navigation, uas yog tam sim no yog muaj kev koom siv los ntawm txawm kev geographers thiab geologists.

GPS / GLONASS + maps

Nws yuav tsum tau muab sau tseg hais tias qhov no txoj kev yog zoo kawg nkaus haum rau kev txiav txim raug ntawm maps, atlases thiab topographical kev pab them nqi. Nyob rau hauv tas li ntawd, cov txheej txheem no yuav tsum tau udovletovryaet historians, raws li lawv tau pom rau lawv tus kheej xwb ntau npaum li cas tau hloov lub roob hav, uas yog tau piav nyob rau hauv kev kawm keeb kwm ntau yam txheej xwm. Txawm li cas los, geography ntaub ntawv feem ntau muaj xws li qhov chaw pab them nqi, uas tsis tau kho tshiab txij thaum pib ntawm lub xeem caug xyoo.

Coj kom zoo dua ntawm xws tseeb, tab sis, theej lub sij hawm-siv thiab me ntsis extravagant txheej txheem, koj yuav tsum ua ib tug triple khi (peb sib txawv phaib) mus rau cov tib qhov chaw hauv cheeb tsam:

• Ua ntej, nrhiav tau ib tug ntau dua los yog tsawg niaj hnub daim ntawv qhia los yog topographic daim ntawv qhia.
• Nws yog ib advisable mus nqa ib tug tshiab snapshot ntawm txoj kev tshawb aerospace struts nrog topographical kev siv rau tus saib xyuas cov system.
• Thaum kawg, peb yuav tsum tau hais tias daim ntawv, thiab cov ntaub ntawv uas koj yuav mus xyuas.

Lub ntsiab lus ntawm lub lag luam no yog ntxiv rau lub cim xeeb ntawm cov navigator, tag nrho peb ntawm daim duab cheeb tsam. Tam sim no cov qauv ntawm cov pab kiag li lawm muaj ib tug haum haib processor thiab ib tug impressive nqi ntawm RAM, ces koj yuav hloov ntawm cov ntawv teev lus yuav instantly.

Kev txiav txim ntawm txoj kev rov

A lawv yog zoo tshaj plaws ua los ntawm kev siv niaj hnub topographical daim ntawv qhia los yog txoj kev npaj. Peb tsis qhia siv rau qhov no muaj hnub nyoog cov ntaub ntawv. Nws yog tau hais tias nyob rau hauv qhov chaw ntawm lub hav iav yog tam sim no traversed lub cheeb tsam, tab sis nyob rau hauv lub ntug ntawm lub ib zaug sib hluas tom hav zoov, koj yuav tsis tau dhau, vim hais tias cov cheeb tsam tau hloov radically lub geography. Card - nws yog qhov zoo, hais tias tsuas yog nyob rau hauv feem ntau ntawm cov neeg mob, cov ntaub ntawv no yog tsis heev muaj tseeb.

Yog vim li cas aerial photography thiab satellite imagery yog dua card?

Tab sis yog vim li cas daim ntawv kos duab li ua tsis tau zoo rau cov khoom uas niaj hnub siv tshuab? Tus taw tes nyob rau hauv lub nram qab no ob yog vim li cas:

• Ua ntej, qhov tseeb ntawm satellite imagery los yog sim saum nruab ntug yees duab nyob rau hauv feem ntau tus neeg mob ntau npaum li cas. Thaum cartographers tseem vouchsafed los tuav lwm generalization tshiab cov ntaub ntawv thiab tam sim no tso tawm cov kev npaj rau lub cheeb tsam?
• Nyob rau hauv cov duab koj yog cia nyob rau hauv lub sij hawm yuav tsum tau los mus txiav txim cov yam ntxwv ntawm ib tug tas. Nyob rau hauv daim ntawv qhia, los sis txawm ib topographical txoj kev npaj ntawm tsob ntoo tsiaj nyob rau hauv lub hav zoov yuav tsum tau qhia xwb schematically thiab tsuas yog nyob rau hauv nqe lus dav dav. Cias muab, ntshaus rau hauv nruab nrab ntawm ib tug tuab spruce prolesok birch yog heev ua tau, thiab nyob rau hauv ib tug tuab ntoo thuv hav zoov los tau poob ntau npaum li cas yooj yim.

Xaiv rau lawv thiab mus saib tus tshiab duab, nws yog pom zoo kom tig mus rau lub qub daim ntawv qhia. Yog vim li cas nws thiaj li nyuaj? Xav txog tej yam uas koj yog ib tug biologist ntawm lub teb tso zis. Koj yuav tau xyuas seb yuav ua li cas zus hav zoov, uas nyob tshiab tsob ntoo hom, ntau lub hav zoov hom hloov nyob rau hauv tag nrho cov xyoo. Zoo tagnrho daws tag nrho cov teeb meem no tsuas imposing ib daim card tshiab rau cov laus counterpart. Yog li, txhua yam yuav kom meej meej pom li sai tau.

Ntawm no yog cov chaw siv geography. Daim ntawv qhia - tej zaum qhov tseem ceeb ntawm lawv, tab sis peb yuav tsum tsis txhob hnov qab uas tshaj yav dhau los xyoo caum, science thiab technology tau ua zoo kawg li strides, thiab yog li ntawd ruam tsis coj kom zoo dua ntawm tag nrho cov niaj hnub achievements.

xaus

Yog li ntawd koj paub tias dab tsi qhov chaw ntawm chaw nyob rau ntawm lub sij hawm no, feem ntau yam. Oddly txaus, tab sis peb tseem siv tag nrho cov tib lub hom phiaj thiab maps uas tau yees ua ntej peb era. Ntawm cov hoob kawm, tom mus rau lawv niaj hnub saib.